TASK B. THE LEARNING PROCESS

Characteristics of Learning

Understanding the Characteristics of Learning is fundamental to mastering the Fundamentals of Instructing (FOI), a core component of the FAA Flight Instructor training requirements.

For proper learning to take place, the lesson must be purposeful, incorporate the results of experience, be multifaceted, and involve an active process (P.R.M.A.).

“Mayday, Mayday, Mayday”

R. Maclyn Stringer

During my second week as a Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI), I learned more about the characteristics of learning than any textbook could teach. What started as a routine training flight became my first real in-flight emergency, not just as an instructor but also as a pilot. When Austin asked me how I knew what to do after the emergency and on the ground, I realized how pilots learn.

Austin, one of my initial students, was in his second week of training. That afternoon, we were doing what every instructor knows all too well — the slam-and-go marathon. Our practice was at an uncontrolled airfield. After fifteen touch-and-go repetitions, he was starting to feel at ease with the airplane. As we turned crosswind in the pattern, the Cessna 172R suddenly shuddered so intensely that my first thought was that the propeller might come loose.

I looked at Austin and asked, “What did you do?”
“Nothing!” he said, wide-eyed and releasing the controls.
“My aircraft,” I replied.

The throttle remained fully forward, and we had power, but the vibration was severe. We were about 500 feet AGL, with rising terrain ahead and mostly flat grassland below, dotted with a few scattered houses, which I knew I could navigate around. I keyed the mic and announced over CTAF: “Mayday, mayday, mayday.” Then I turned us back toward the runway in what we know as the impossible turn, hoping that partial power would keep us on course to the runway.

I heard the pilot of the RV-7, which was on final for runway 29, announce, “Going around.”

With my mind racing, I couldn’t recall the number of the runway on which we were landing. “We are landing on the runway… opposite 29!” A short time later, as I focused on the threshold of the runway, I announced “11!”

I remember the RV-7 pilot continuing to handle air traffic control. He announced on Unicom that a plane was making an emergency landing on runway 11 and instructed others in the pattern not to land. I then heard a calming comment, “The runway is yours.” As I turned onto my short final and realized we would reach the runway, I noticed I was going too fast, had no flaps deployed, and faced about a 10-knot tailwind. I fully extended the flaps and floated down the runway, feeling as if it would last forever. As the thousand-foot markers on the far end of the runway approached, we touched down, applied the brakes, and stopped before the runway’s end. Did I perform the maneuver perfectly? No. Did we walk away with the airplane intact on the runway? Yes. Were lessons learned? Definitely.

A post-flight inspection identified a blown cylinder, which cut power by almost 50%. We were lucky, but the experience taught me lessons that transformed my learning and, as a CFI, my understanding of the learning process.

I tell this story to each of my students to emphasize the importance of knowing their emergency procedures during all phases of flight. I instruct them to be familiar with the actual altitude of 1,000 feet AGL during takeoff. During an emergency, there is no time to calculate the altitude, so they must know it and announce it during their takeoff brief.

1. Learning Is Purposeful

The FAA reminds us that students are goal-oriented. They learn best when the lesson clearly connects to something significant. That day, survival was my main goal. My attention focused solely on the immediate task of landing the airplane safely.

When I retell this story to students, I begin with that purpose. I explain that every procedure, from memorizing 1,000 feet AGL as the decision altitude after takeoff to briefing on where to land in case of power loss, exists for a reason. When my students brief their own takeoffs now, they don’t just recite numbers. They understand why that altitude matters, why they won’t make a turn more than 30 degrees of bank, and to know the terrain around the airport. The purpose is clear: have a plan before the pressure arrives. Purpose transforms routine actions into meaningful ones, which aids in retention.

2. Learning Is a Result of Experience

Real learning occurs through personal experience, often the difficult way. The engine’s shaking, strange noises, and the shock of discovering it wasn’t running properly have ingrained the engine-out procedures into my memory. Reading hundreds of pages about engine failures is valuable, but experiencing one firsthand taught me more than any book could.

When I teach emergency procedures now, I focus on building that same sense of experience in a safe environment. Starting the emergency at a high altitude lets the student concentrate on the critical tasks of flying, navigating, and communicating before troubleshooting the problem. At 5,000 feet AGL, I reduce power to idle and tell the student, “You’ve lost your engine, get us back to the airport.” They quickly realize that experience feels very different from theory. They learn how stress impacts their decision-making, the importance of airspeed control, and how planning ahead can buy valuable seconds. Almost every time, the student looks down at their iPad and, in doing so, increases airspeed. I advise the student to reach their best glide, or they will not reach the airport. 

3. Learning Is Multifaceted

In the cockpit, learning occurs on multiple levels. During this incident, there was a cognitive component: identifying the problem and devising a plan. The psychomotor aspect: accurately adjusting pitch, bank, and power. The Emotional Layer: Handling Fear and Staying Focused. And the social component: communicating with my student and hearing the reassuring voice of the pilot who cleared the pattern.

As a flight instructor, I have come to understand how we acquire knowledge through multiple channels, both intellectually and emotionally, physically, and socially, often simultaneously.

In my simulated-emergency lessons, I highlight those four dimensions:

• Think: What’s the cause and the plan?
• Feel: What emotions surfaced, and how did you control them?
• Do: How did your hands and feet respond?
• Communicate: How did you coordinate with ATC and your passenger?

When students reflect on all four, they see learning not as a checklist but as a complete human process.

4. Learning Is an Active Process

That emergency landing exemplified active learning. There was no time to absorb information or wait passively for instructions. I was fully engaged, mentally and physically, in solving the problem.

Today, I design lessons that demand the same level of engagement. During our simulated power-off landing exercise, I don’t tell the student exactly what to do; I ask questions and guide them to the best answer. They must decide: What’s their best glide? How to communicate with others in the pattern. When to turn base? Are we going to make the runway?

Active learning turns theory into hands-on experience. When students realize their decisions influence the result, they start thinking like pilots actively piloting the aircraft instead of passengers passively letting it happen. During training, when students face their own “controlled emergencies” to a successful outcome, I observe the same moment of insight that transformed my perspective.

Students have told me several times that this lesson is one of the more enjoyable lessons because they actually understand the importance of getting the procedure right.

TASK A. EFFECTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND COMMUNICATION ON THE LEARNING PROCESS

ELEMENTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR – DEFENSE MECHANISMS

The FAA discusses several standard psychological defense mechanisms in the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9B) under the section titled “Defense Mechanisms.” These mechanisms—repression, denial, compensation, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, fantasy, and displacement—are explained to help flight instructors identify typical emotional responses that students may display when faced with learning difficulties or stress.

The instructor needs to understand and support emotional intelligence in the cockpit. They must recognize these behaviors early and respond with empathy, clarity, and structured feedback. The instructor should avoid being confrontational since defense mechanisms are often unconscious reactions to perceived threats or failure.

“Steep Turns And Stalls”

R. Maclyn Stringer

I have been flying with my student Nick for a few weeks. From our initial discovery flight together, I noticed that he was somewhat anxious about flying. I was unsure whether it was due to a fear of heights or if he did not believe an airplane could fly. Nick told me he wanted to get his private pilot certificate, not because he was chasing a dream to become a world-class airline pilot, but because he just wanted to be a guy who could fly.

For our first flight together, I introduced Nick to the Cessna 172R. As pilots know, the 172 is an easy and forgiving airplane, one of the best for training new pilots. Nick seemed at ease as I walked around the aircraft, pointing out items we examined from the checklist before the flight. Flaps and ailerons, the tires and brake pads, fuel and oil, etc. The components that keep pilots safe. He nodded along calmly, hands in his pockets, listening intently. He didn’t look anxious or excited.

After the preflight was completed, I invited Nick into the cockpit, described the internal preflight procedure, and explained how to start the engine. I asked if he wanted to give it a try. Nick nodded yes and took the keys.  Inserting the key, he turned it, cranking the starter, and the engine came to life. He reduced the throttle and adjusted the mixture as I explained. I showed him how to taxi, and we were on our way. The first time taxiing an aircraft is an exciting time for any first-time aviator as they overcorrect the rudder input and perform S-turns down the taxiway. As we prepared to take off, I asked Nick if he wanted to take control while I talked him through the process. He immediately responded with a distinct and deliberate “No!” as he let go of the yoke and placed his hands firmly on his legs. We received our takeoff clearance for 30R. I eased the throttle forward, and we began to roll down the runway.

As I sat calmly in the right seat, rolling down the runway and explaining what I was doing, the airplane reached rotation speed, and I pulled back slightly on the yoke to allow the nose wheel to lift off the ground. Usually, I would say the age-old aviation mantra of takeoff is optional; however, landing is mandatory. Not this time. I could see that humor was not going to be heard by Nick. As the airplane became airborne, from the corner of my eye, I noticed Nick’s hands clenching his legs while, at the same time, he pushed his rear end into the back of the seat as if he was waiting for the plane to come to a sudden stop. He had an expression on his face, wondering and possibly regretting what he had signed up for.

“You alright?” I asked over the headset, trying not to smile.

“Yes,” he said, jaw clenched and eyes forward, as if saying anything more might let the plane know he wasn’t entirely on board with this whole “defying gravity” thing.

As we departed the pattern to the northeast, the airplane smoothly climbed into the brisk morning sky, with the sun shining on our faces. Below, the land unfolded like a tranquil quilt of green and gold, patches of circular and rectangular fields broken occasionally by reflective bodies of water. But inside the cockpit, Nick felt anything but calm.

After reaching our cruising altitude, I asked Nick if he wanted to take the controls. Nick timidly and awkwardly took the yoke in his hands. I do not think he could have gripped it any tighter. I told him to relax and explained how to level off, which he did pretty well for the first time in a small airplane. However, I couldn’t get him to loosen that jar-opening grip from the yoke.

We flew straight and level for several minutes. Nick’s hands barely moved. He was focused with his eyes out the front window. I explained how the airplane turns, then instructed him to make a left turn. Knowing a new student would only use the aileron to turn, I managed any rudder input required. He nervously banked to a 10-degree turn. I slightly added pressure to turn the yoke, providing more bank and back pressure, and then I saw the fear on his face. Nick let go of the yoke and began to slide his body towards me. With each increase in bank angle, his body moved further from the left door. Any more side movement and Nick was going to be on my lap. I seriously think that he thought the door was going to open, and he was going to fall three thousand feet to the ground below. I configured us back to straight and level flight so that Nick could regain his nerves. By the end of the first flight, we finally managed about twenty degrees of bank without him feeling too uncomfortable.

At one point, I told him that we would have to perform a 45-degree bank turn. His immediate response was “Why?” After chuckling internally, I explained that sometimes a steep turn is required to get you where you want to be and that it is also a part of the final check ride. Nick was not thrilled.

Throughout the spring, flying with Nick was enjoyable. He wanted to learn how to fly and get over his fear. We scheduled early morning, 5 AM lessons, in the air before the control tower opened and well before any convective activity. We spent most of our time controlling the aircraft in cruise flight, climbing and descending while making ten to twenty-degree banked turns, just trying to get him comfortable.

There were times in the pattern, while banking the aircraft at thirty degrees, that Nick thought the airplane was banked too aggressively. He would raise his legs as if trying to get into a fetal position and extend his arms over his left shoulder, looking to grasp an assist handle. One time, while turning a steeper base to final, he nervously stated that this is where people die! He explained that he had watched videos of people stalling in the base to final turn and crashing. I told him that he should stop watching airplane crash videos and watch the videos that teach how to fly airplanes properly. I never had to worry about Nick overbanking in the pattern.

REPRESSION

From our first flight, it seemed that Nick was unconsciously repressing unpleasant or traumatic memories from the past.  If Nick truly wanted to be a pilot, I had to do whatever it took to make him comfortable in the air.

During one of our ground lessons, we discussed aerodynamic stalls, the reasons for performing them, and how to react to them. I also explained, in the mildest manner possible, the concept of spins, their dangers, and the P.A.R.E. recovery process.

With Nick at the controls, we took off for what I knew would be a challenging day of flight training. I had to teach him how to stall in the air. After completing our clearing turns, I again explained what a stall was and how we would perform it. I explained the stall warning horn, the buffet, as well as a full break.

As we set up for the maneuver, I told Nick to put his hands on the yoke and follow me through the procedure.  “Power idle, point the nose down slightly as if we are coming in for a landing, then slowly pull the nose up. Here we are bleeding off power and airspeed.” As I pulled back on the yoke, I was doing my absolute best to keep the wings level and the nose of the aircraft straight. The last thing I wanted to do was to have Nick freak out during his first stall. For Nick, I think the procedure was taking forever. I could see him pushing his butt further into the seat. The stall horn finally buzzed. I lowered the nose, advanced the power, and we recovered.

After he had calmed down a bit, I asked if he was ready for a full break. He nervously said yes. I am sure it took every bit of faith in me that we would not spin out of control. In retrospect, I am pretty sure that Nick’s most significant fear stemmed from watching too many videos. He thought the wings would roll over, and we would enter an uncontrollable spin.  Visions of the airplane diving toward the ground, with the two of us spinning toward a collision with the earth.

DENIAL

Before entering the maneuver, with an understanding of his illogical physical behavior when fear arose, I looked over to Nick, knowing how afraid he was, and told him to sit there and “Don’t touch me.”

I pulled back on the yoke, raising the nose of the aircraft. The stall buzzer sounded, and we felt a slight buffet. Then, as expected and briefed, the nose began to fall straight down towards the horizon. In Nick’s mind, we were pointed directly to the ground. He let out a nervous exclamation of “Woo, woo, woo!” then grabbed my left arm, turning the yoke, causing the airplane to bank from a straight nose down to a steep left turn. Feeling an imminent spin progressing, I elbowed Nick in the chest with my left arm, breaking free from his grasp, and then controlled the attitude with my right. I quickly pushed the throttle in with my left.

Nick exclaimed, “You said the nose would fall straight down through the horizon!”

I responded, “It would have, had you not grabbed my arm!” trying to keep my cool.

Nick countered, “I did not grab your arm!”

Yes, you did.” I replied, thinking I could probably show the claw marks on my skin under my long-sleeved shirt. He was displaying a clear sign of denial. Nick refused to accept the fact that he had pulled on my arm, causing the airplane to roll.

COMPENSATION

I told him that we would not be performing any more stalls today, and we continued our lesson.

“Straight and level flight. I have that down,” Nick said, compensating for his weakness in the stall recovery.

I looked towards Nick after hearing his self-assuring tone. “Nick, you are not a bad pilot.”

He continued flying straight and level, not saying a word. “You do perform straight and level flight well, though,” I said, hoping to relieve some of his tension.

REACTION FORMATION

As our flight training continued, forcing a chuckle, Nick said, “Well, next time we do a stall, we’ll push this thing into a spin for a couple of rotations, then pull out. That sounds like fun, right? We will show the plane who’s boss.” 

Knowing how uncomfortable Nick is whenever the plane is not in straight and level flight, I thought to myself that he was displaying a textbook case of reaction formation, trying to convince himself that he has no fear of stalls.

“Really, you’re ready for another stall?” I asked.

“Sure am,” Nick said with a smirk on his face.

“We will make sure we get one in during our next flight,” I responded. “For now, let’s head back to the airport.”

RATIONALIZATION

As we navigated our way back to our airport, Nick remarked, “You know, if we flew better, higher-performance aircraft, the plane would not stall like that. These Cessnas just aren’t good at stall recovery.” Nick said in an attempt to rationalize his stall recovery behavior.

I responded, “Nick, the 172 is one of the easiest and most forgiving airplanes for students to learn in. Why do you think it is the plane’s fault?” Nick did not say a word. “Stall recovery just takes practice and confidence that the airplane will do what you want it to do,” I said, hoping to keep his motivation for aviation alive.

PROJECTION

After that exchange, our flight back was quiet. A nearly sterile cockpit, which allowed Nick time to think. “I would not have overreacted had you not attempted to put us into a spin and scare me.”

Raising an eyebrow, I quickly thought to myself, how am I going to respond to that remark without sounding confrontational? Knowing I did not intentionally roll the aircraft. Nick grabbed my arm. I thought it best not to react to his projection.  Instead, I replied, “Good job bringing us back to the airport safely. When we land, we can talk about what we can refine.”

FANTASY

Nick took the controls for landing. It was not a great landing, but it was safe. He taxied the airplane to parking and went through the shutdown checklist. I could see the frustration drawn on his face. He took his headphones off his head and looked towards me, “You know, I don’t even know why I’m trying to do this, maybe I’ll just go into truck driving.” His voice carried a wistful tone, evoking a fantasy of an easier path rather than confronting the challenges ahead.

I let the silence settle for a moment before replying. “Learning to fly is not easy. A lot of it is mental, and you’ve already shown you can push through. You used to be unable to complete a steep turn. Now look at you. I think you think today’s experience was worse than what it was.”

DISPLACEMENT

Nick climbed out of the cockpit, tied down the airplane, and began walking towards the school. With his head down, he kicked an orange safety cone near the hangar in an act of displacement, channeling his disappointment with himself into a harmless object. He reached down and put the cone back where it belonged. As he straightened up and we continued our walk towards the hangar, I told him, “Every pilot I have trained has been nervous about stalls. Together, we can help you overcome your fear of them. You may still be apprehensive of them, but once you have the recovery maneuver solidified in muscle memory, they won’t be as bad.”

As we debriefed, I could see the tension easing in Nick’s head. For a few moments, I thought he was ready to quit flying. Unfortunately, this happens to many students, and I was hoping he wouldn’t be one of the statistics to quit because of how emotionally demanding flying can be.

For me, it was another day balancing aviation instruction with the art of navigating human nature, ensuring students become skilled pilots and resilient individuals.